... Irwin has hit the nail right on the proverbial head!! Email me your address, Irwin, and I send you the chip.

Here are the explanations:

San Marino (the full name of which is "Most Serene Republic of San Marino") claims to be the oldest republic in the world, dating to perhaps as early as the 4th century A.D., when settled by a stonecutter named (surprise!) Marino. A community was founded during the 5th century. The independence of San Marino was formally recognized by the Pope in 1631, and the form of government has remained unchanged at least since that year.

* Denmark is a constitutional monarchy, the current form of which arguably dates to 1332 A.D., when King Christoffer II ceded much of the royal power to his nobles and the clergy. (The Danish Kingdom dates to approximately 500 A.D.) Denmark is one of the two countries which I put on this list with an * for the following reason: the monarchy became hereditary in 1660 and the formal government became an autocracy until King Fredrik VII authorized a new constitution in 1849 which provided for a more formalized representative government (albeit one which gave formal structure to the de facto distribution of power already in existence at the time). Denmark included all of modern Scandanavia until Sweden gained ins independence in 1523. Norway was ceded to Sweden in 1814. The Danish flag is the oldest in the world.

Sweden, also a constitutional monarchy, gained its independence from Denmark in 1523. Sweden's parliament, the first in Europe, was established in 1435 and operated initially under Danish rule. Sweden acuired Norway during the Napoleonic wars (1799-1815) and Norway became independent in 1905.

* Monaco is an independent principality and has been since September 14, 1641, when Treaty of Peronne (between France and Spain) recognized the independence of the Principality of Monaco. The Grimaldi family has ruled Monaco on and off since 1215, when Fulco des Cassello of the Grimaldi family seized the site. Monaco gets an asterisk for the following reasons: during the French Revolution (1793-1814), Monaco was forcibly "annexed" by France. The Grimaldi family refused to recognize the annexation (at least one member of the family was guillotined during this dispute). The First Treat of Paris (1814) recognized full restoration of the disputed principality. Furthermore, in 1911, Monaco adopted a constitution and became a constitutional monarchy; however, although the constitution eliminated the absolute power of the monarch, the Prince of Monaco remains the primary power in the government. [As an aside: in 1863, the company "The Société des Bains de Mer et du Cercle des Etrangers" was leased to François Blanc for 50 years and he was granted a monopoly on gambling in Monaco.]

Great Britain (or England or the UK, I would have accepted any of those) -- another constitutional monarchy. The last change in the form of the British government occurred when the monarchy was restored in 1660 after the failure of the Cromwell "republic". The so-called "Glorious Revolution" of 1688 confirmed the sovereinty of parliament, so arguably Britain's "current, continuous" form of government should date from that year, but no later.

And here's why I considered the other guesses incorrect:

Andorra -- picked by one person: a fuedal co-principality under the joint control of France and the Bishop of Urgel for 715 years (1278 to 1993), Andorra adopted a parliamentary system of government in 1993.

Belgium -- picked by three people (but NOT Bob Hermans): Belgium is a "parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch" (don't ask me how this is different from a "constitutional monarchy"; I have no idea! <g>). Belgium was ruled for nearly two millennia by conquerors from a variety of places, became part of the Netherlands in 1815 and became independent in 1830.

Botswana -- picked by one person: formerly the British protectorate of Bechuanaland, Botswana became independent in 1966!

Eritrea -- picked by one person: Originally part of Ethiopia, Eritrea was an Italian colony from 1890-1941, was under joint British/UN supervision from 1941-1952 and was returned to Ethiopia in that year. Eritrea declared itself an independent nation on May 24, 1993.

France was picked by one person, who obviously forgot about the French Revolution (1789-1793), in which the monarchy was overthrown and the First Republic established. Since then, France has had the First Empire (Napoleon, 1804-1815), a restored monarchy (1814-1848), the Second Republic (1848-1852), the Second Empire (1852-1870), the Third Republic (1871-1946), the Fourth Republic (1946-1958) and the (current!) Fifth Republic (1958-date).

Kuwait -- (not a bad guess, Peter): The Al-Sabah dynasty, which rules Kuwait, was founded in 1759. I did not include Kuwait on my list, however, because Britain controlled Kuwait's foreign relations and defense from 1899 to 1961, when full independence was restored.

Lichtenstein -- picked by three people: a principality (or hereditrary constitutional monarchy), Lichtenstein gained independent sovereignty in 1806.

Minneapolis -- picked by one person: huh? (This one came by email; I think it was a joke, as the sender later posted a serious guess with three correct answers.)

Netherlands (or Holland) -- picked by two people: another "parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarch". The United Dutch Republic (actually a confederation of independent states formed in 1579 by the Union of Utrecht) was dissolved in 1795. From 1795 to 1806, Holland was part of the Batavian Republic (formed by France!). Holland was a kingdom from 1806 to 1810, when it was annexed by France. In 1815, the Congress of Vienna formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands (which included what is now Belgium; Belgium seceded in 1830).

Norway -- picked by one person: Norway was part of Denmark from 1381-1814 and part of Sweden from 1814-1905, and became an independent kingdom in 1915.

Saudi Arabia -- suggested by one person: In 1913, Ibn Saud, founder of the Saudi dynasty, overthrew the Turkish rulers of Nejd, in Central Arabia. Over the next 13 years, he brought other regions of Arabia under his control, consolidating the country in 1926.

Spain -- picked by two people: currently a constitutional monarchy, modern Spain was formed in 1469 with the union of the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile. Primo de Rivera became dictator of Spain in 1923, King Alfonso XIII "revoked" the dictatorship in 1930, but was himself forced out of the country in 1931, when a republic was proclaimed. The Spanish War of 1936-1939 resulted in Francisco Franco being named "caudillo" (polite word for dictator). The constitutional monarchy was restored after Franco's death in 1975.

Switzerland -- picked by three people: Although Switzerland traces its "modern" history to 1291, when three of its cantons created a defensive alliance, the cantons retained their sovereign independence until 1848, when they adopted a federal constitution. Even under that constitution, however, the cantons retain considerable independence and local control.

The Vatican (or Vatican City or "The Holy See") -- picked by six people: although the Popes have held dominion over an area of central Italy (sometimes referred to as the "Papal States" for centuries, the current independent state of Vatican City was by a Treaty of Conciliation signed on February 11, 1929. Earlier, the sovereignty of the Pope had been confined to the palaces of the Vatican and a few other locations by a law enacted in 1871.

And that's it!! ----- jim o\-S